HIGHWAY SAFETY IN BLACK/AFRICAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITIES:
ISSUES AND STRATEGIES
Guidelines and Strategies for Program Development

This chapter serves as a standalone reference tool for people who wish to design and conduct traffic safety programs directed at Black populations in their communities. The guidelines outlined here incorporate best practices, operational guidance and strategic information gleaned from literature reviews, the project team's focus group sessions and one-on-one discussions with community leaders in six locations throughout the United States. Also included are recommendations from the Blue Ribbon Panel to Increase Seat Belt Use Among African Americans: A Report To The Nation, released in Fall 2000. Established by former Secretary of Transportation, the Honorable Rodney Slater, this prestigious panel identified issues and approaches for addressing seat belt use in African-American communities. The work of the Blue Ribbon Panel is introduced here in order to note the consistencies between the results of this research project and the Panel's recommendations, and to present the research results so that they build on the guidance provided by the Panel.

Specifically, you may use this chapter to help develop programs and messages designed to:

  • enhance awareness of highway safety issues and concerns;

  • encourage modification of behaviors that may compromise safety;

  • explore the specific channels of communication most likely to reach these audiences; and

  • include cultural relevance aimed at Black populations.

Key Target Groups

Black communities are not homogeneous. The diversity within African American communities makes it essential to create targeted communications to elicit effective responses to traffic and highway safety messages. Based on a literature review of major segments of the Black population and focus group research findings, messages may be most effective when directed to the following three target audiences:

  • The "Hip-Hop" Generation;

  • The Civil Rights Generation; and

  • Black Males (of all ages).

While other target groups exist, these three main groups were selected because they offer a sufficient market size to warrant broad-scale media message development. Markets for particular behaviors or other smaller target groups also may be worthwhile to pursue. Since the research for this project was qualitative, the sizes of particular markets were not calculated, though it would be a relatively straightforward process to calculate size for demographically defined groups such as those above.

Demographic definitions such as age and gender were used to identify and recruit participants for the focus groups. During the focus group sessions, information about participants' lifestyles, media patterns and attitudes toward traffic safety issues was collected. Therefore, the major target markets discussed in this section present both demographic and psychographic information to enhance State and local efforts to communicate with Black communities. Overlaps exist among the various groups; and individuals may be found in several market segments, particularly if they are male. Also recognize that these three segments are not exhaustive of all segments of Black communities. Therefore, additional research within a local community should be conducted to thoroughly understand specific Black audiences. Nonetheless, the market segmentation provided here is a starting point for research and communication planning targeting Black communities.

The "Hip-Hop" Generation

The "Hip-Hop" Generation can best be described as individuals between the ages of 15 and 35 (born between 1965 and 1986) who identify closely with the language, clothing, music, poetry, attitudes, and behaviors of "hip-hop" culture in the U.S.3 "Hip-Hop" is defined as the culture from which rap music emerged in the 1970s. It has since developed into a lifestyle with its own language, style of dress, music, and mindset, and has expanded beyond urban centers like New York City and Los Angeles into rural and suburban communities. The Source, the leading publication targeting the Hip-Hop Generation, explains that the term is limited to Black Americans, while the term "Hip-Hop Nation" refers to anyone, regardless of race, nationality or ethnicity, who relates to the hip-hop culture. Today, some in this generation tend to consider leisure activities and entertainment as a higher priority than economic and political empowerment.4

According to Christopher Tyson, Harvard University Fellow and business consultant, what distinguishes the Hip-Hop Generation from the Civil Rights Generation is that the former are the first Black Americans born and reared in a legally desegregated and voluntarily integrated country.5 Although the Hip-Hop Generation has been exposed to working- and middle-class realities, the development of their culture, in some respects, has been based on a backlash against the middle-class values of African Americans. Many urban youth in the 1970s and early 1980s felt disenchanted with the fading promises of the Civil Rights Movement and the abandonment by middle-class Black Americans of then-decaying urban communities.

This generation respects the opinions of their immediate peers, hip-hop artists, and others who are directly involved with issues or causes directly affecting their lifestyles.

The Civil Rights Generation

The Civil Rights Generation typically includes Black Americans who tend to associate with the economic, political, and social struggles for equality in America. This group holds traditional middle-class values. Members of the Civil Rights Generation tend to join more traditional organizations within the Black community such as Black fraternities and sororities, the NAACP, Urban League chapters, and other national Black professional, civic, and social organizations. Members of this generation hold economic, political, and social advancement as core values and believe in a strong work ethic. This generation has a solid voting history, is politically astute, uses traditional channels of communication, including the Black press, and prefer to see positive media images that incorporate family, wealth, education, and achievements. Members of this group hold strong traditional family values and have firm roots in the Black church.

The core of the Civil Rights Generation typically includes people born before 1964. However, the Civil Rights Generation also includes a younger group, which transcends geographic, social, and economic levels.

Black Males

The final key target group comprises Black males of all ages. They have different views on traffic safety issues than females. For example, racial profiling affects them to a greater extent than it does their female counterparts. Black male audiences tend to be more skeptical of preachy messages and mainstream delivery mechanisms. This group generally requires a culturally relevant approach that sends clear messages that recognize and reflect male beliefs, behaviors, and interests.

Diversity Within the Targeted Groups

Since diversity exists within each of the major target groups, respondents felt that a message's appeal can be increased by addressing specific gender, age, or geographic differences. Each program or message developed should be tested to ensure that it will be well received by the intended audience. In certain instances, the three target audiences may be reached by using the same strategies; however, in others, carefully targeted communication is necessary to effect behavioral, attitudinal, and awareness changes in Black people.

Obstacles to Effective Message Reception

During the research, focus group and one-on-one discussion participants consistently emphasized obstacles to the effectiveness of any highway or traffic safety messages. In addition to normal target marketing issues (discussed later) three significant concerns were:

  • distrust of law enforcement, particularly for issues such as "driving while Black;"

  • the reliability of statistics and findings from research commissioned by government and other predominantly White organizations; and

  • the perceived inferiority of sidewalk and road conditions between Black and White communities.

Since these perceptions may impede the effectiveness of many safety messages, respondents felt it would be essential to address these issues forthrightly to ensure that messages are well received. Therefore, these issues must be considered atop normal marketing strategies when attempting to communicate with the Black population. It is important to talk with the local community to determine the extent to which these obstacles exist.

Address Obstacles

It is important to address obstacles that impede the communication of traffic safety messages. The obstacles include racial profiling, the quality of roads and sidewalks, and the distrust of statistics.

The Blue Ribbon Panel to Increase Seat Belt Use Among African Americans: A Report To The Nation also addresses these obstacles. Selected recommendations from the Panel are included below. (See Appendix G for a complete list of the Panel's recommendations.)

Although most participants in the focus groups and one-on-one discussions said they could separate racial profiling concerns from issues of traffic and highway safety, the tension generated by racial profiling, or "driving while Black," creates mistrust between the public and law enforcement. Therefore, racial profiling should be recognized as a significant issue when developing traffic safety messages and policies.

  • To address the issue of "driving while Black," focus group participants suggested increased diversity on police forces, better screening of candidates, and greater accountability of law enforcement. In other words, policy solutions were seen as more effective than marketing solutions. However, dissemination of information about these policies would be necessary, as stated in Recommendations 5 and 6 of the Blue Ribbon Panel Report (see Appendix G).

  • To improve the perceived credibility of research and statistics, participants in the one-on-one discussions said it is essential to demonstrate that all research used or cited in safety messages is credible and has been prepared by people who are culturally sensitive. This is similar to Recommendation 4 of the Blue Ribbon Panel Report. In addition, focus group and one-on-one participants said that potential solutions to this issue might include a greater knowledge of, and reliance on, research organizations that have good reputations within the Black community; less use of statistics; and statistical information presented in a clear, simple and relevant manner making it easier for the audience to understand and accept.

  • To address the strong consensus finding from the focus group participants that their driving environment differs from that of White drivers in local communities, the participants and one-on-one discussants recommended creating messages that at least acknowledge and recognize those differences.

  • To address all three major obstacles cited above, research participants and the Blue Ribbon Panel suggested opening communication among community partners, organizations, and government agencies wishing to deliver traffic safety messages to Black communities. These actions can help develop relationships and maintain contacts with key Black constituents. This recommendation was important because many of the one-on-one discussion participants said that people were often unaware of resources available from government agencies and other groups regarding highway and traffic safety.

Key Informational Needs

This section presents the key informational needs emphasized by focus group and one-on-one discussion participants. The participants also discussed additional safety issues that may be targeted to Black communities. All of these issues are listed in order of their cited importance to Black communities in general. While the previous section described obstacles to effective message reception, this section describes specific message content and information that may be worthy of emphasis. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has more detailed information available about these issues. Again, additional localized research is necessary to understand how the local Black community perceives these informational needs.

Drinking and Driving

All focus groups, regardless of age, gender, or location, listed drinking and driving as a major concern in the Black community. Reasons given for drinking and driving are that most people do not know their tolerance level and think they can drive safely when under the influence.

The key issues that require clarification or emphasis for Black target markets are the links between drinking and impaired driving. Drinking in its own right was an overarching concern. Many participants said drinking is a concern because "there is an abundance of liquor stores in Black communities." One participant said, "There is a liquor store on every corner in (urban) Black neighborhoods." However, linkages between drinking and impaired driving were not always acknowledged. Participants felt that messages and campaigns should:

  • Demonstrate relevance in black communities. While drinking and driving is regularly cited as a top concern, many participants did not perceive the Black population to be part of the problem, or commented, "it's more of a White issue." This implies that a key initial task for reaching many in the Black community is to create awareness that drinking and driving is an issue of concern in the Black community. A key challenge in disseminating this information will be to persuade an audience that is skeptical of statistical information.

  • Clarify the definition of drinking and driving. One complicating factor in assessing the risk of drinking and driving is the actual definition of the term. "Drinking and driving" tended to be assigned one of two definitions, with no strong pattern by age, gender, or region. The first definition is essentially that of "drunk driving," or driving when one is not capable of controlling the vehicle in a safe manner. The second definition, although less common, is essentially "drinking while in the act of driving," even if the person has only one drink. This second definition also implies that a person who gets intoxicated before entering a vehicle is not "drinking and driving", as long as he/she does not actually drink in the vehicle. Perhaps use of labels such as "drunk driving" and "driving while under the influence" may provide further clarification.

  • Emphasize the risks of drinking and driving. During the focus groups, two main points emerged regarding drinking and driving. One was that drunk drivers seldom thought of themselves as drunk, seldom felt that they had consumed too much, or didn't realize how their alcohol consumption would affect them. Drunk drivers rarely thought they had consumed enough alcohol to impair their driving and, therefore, felt they could "handle it." The second point was that drunk drivers often get behind the wheel because they have no other way of getting home. After all, "You have to get home somehow," stated a focus group participant. As a corollary, many participants also cited "drinking and walking" as a pedestrian hazard.

Based on these findings, many of the same message themes targeted to the general population about the risks of impaired driving can also be targeted to the Black population, albeit with deference to the other recommendations in this report.

Aggressive and Reckless Driving

Many participants cited aggression as a major reason for reckless driving. Anger and frustration over traffic congestion and loss of time while sitting in stalled traffic, and job-related and personal stress, also contribute to aggressive behavior behind the wheel.

  • Define Aggressive and Reckless Driving and Its Consequences
    Although aggressive and reckless driving appears as a major issue regardless of gender and age (with the exception of teenage boys), few focus group participants could define what was meant by the behaviors and their effect on public safety. They suggested that reality-based messages such as spokesperson testimonials and the use of crashed vehicles at public venues might effectively illustrate the impact of such behavior.


Speeding

Many groups tend to view speeding with resignation, with teenage boys in particular having a cavalier attitude about speeding. However, speeding was also viewed as a significant concern among focus group participants, separate from aggressive or reckless driving.

A common perception in the focus groups was that "it just happens." Speeding was most often attributed to Americans' fast-paced lifestyles. This belief may explain the nonchalance about speeding since a change in lifestyle would be required in order to change this behavior. Communities can help reframe such thinking, if they:

  • Promote better understanding and knowledge of the law. Participants fell into two groups with regard to strategies for reducing speeding (and the breaking of all traffic laws). About half of respondents (with no strong pattern by age, gender, or location) felt that speeding and other breaches of traffic law were due more to a lack of understanding or knowledge of the law. For that group, education is key to improving such behavior.

  • Enforce the speed limit laws. The other half of respondents felt that most lawbreakers understand traffic laws, but just choose to ignore them. This group felt that speed limits need to be more strictly enforced, particularly around schools and in neighborhoods and other areas where children are present.

  • Explain the consequences and risks. The consequences and costs of speeding, such as higher insurance rates and injury and fatality rates, must be emphasized, specifically to younger adult males. This message may be more effective in Black communities if combined with information about increased risks in areas where sidewalks are narrow or non-existent, or in areas with substandard infrastructure.

Pedestrian Safety

A general concern across all of the focus groups was for pedestrian safety. Focus group participants cited poor sidewalk conditions, the absence of speed bumps, road construction, vehicular speeding, aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, lack of crosswalks, and poor signage as pedestrian safety concerns.

  • Discourage jaywalking. All focus groups reported that pedestrians put themselves at risk by crossing outside of designated pedestrian walkways, walking against traffic lights, and walking without regard for drivers. Oftentimes, participants agreed that pedestrians taunt drivers by strolling across streets with a perceived attitude that dares drivers to hit them. Messages should encourage pedestrians to use designated crossing areas.

  • Clarify pedestrian rules of the road. According to focus group participants, neither drivers nor pedestrians have an understanding of pedestrian laws and ordinances. Better education is needed to explain these laws and ordinances. Additionally, some attention may need to be given to pedestrian "guidelines" in situations where the environment or infrastructure may not be ideal. For example, education about proper ways to walk along roads without sidewalks may be useful in some areas, or guidelines about stepping into crosswalks where visibility may be obstructed by parked cars.

Proper use of child safety seats

Although not listed among the top three concerns by the focus groups, some participants felt that the use of child safety seats needs to be addressed.

Focus group participants said that even if parents do not wear seat belts, they tend to want to ensure that their children are safe and will place their children in child restraints when driving. Non-use of safety seats was generally attributed to either economic constraints or indifference to safety, as opposed to lack of awareness. On the other hand, awareness of booster seats was mixed, with most people having only a general knowledge of when a child should use one. Apparently, more education needs to be provided on child safety seats and booster seats in order to change thinking, with mothers considered the target audience for the messages.

  • Promote understanding of the proper use of child safety seats. In smaller communities, the majority of respondents in the one-on-one discussions reported that proper use of child safety seats is a problem. Many respondents noted that there is less education and enforcement in rural communities. In other areas, some respondents felt there was confusion about age, height, and weight requirements. Likewise, teens in the focus groups said that people do not use safety seats because they do not have, or want to take, the time to properly install them or to secure a child in one.

  • Emphasize the necessity of safety seats regardless of the price. Cost was a major reason cited by many participants when asked why others in their community do not use safety seats for their children. Education efforts should emphasize that the decision to purchase a safety seat is not a choice, but rather is necessary to ensure the safety of the child. One consideration is offering and promoting free or low cost safety seats to parents.

  • Encourage the participation of young fathers. Men in the 20-27 age group appear to be significantly less interested in safety seat issues than any other group. Comments from men in this age group included "buying the cheapest seat you can find," "picking up whatever you can get," and other comments that indicate a low level of interest. They also indicated that they were less likely to drive "out of their way" to attend a child seat checkup or obtain other technical assistance on safety seats. Since men in the 20-27 age group are demographically highly likely to be fathers of infants and toddlers, this group should be a major target for education efforts.

  • Clarify the proper use of booster seats. Although participants had heard of booster seats, relatively few knew who should ride in them, how they are installed, and why and when they should be used. Most knew that booster seats are used to enhance safety, but many also questioned the extent to which this occurs, given the visual appearance of booster seats as merely a height booster. Most participants felt that a child's height and weight determine which safety seat or booster seat is appropriate for the child, though most did not know specific figures (not unreasonable since most were not parents of children of an age where it was necessary to know specifics.) Many parents had rules of thumb for the progression from a safety seat to a booster seat. For example, one parent said that "when the child can kick the back of the front seat, that child doesn't need a safety seat" or it should be replaced. Others mentioned weight requirements in general, but not specific thresholds, indicating a possible need for more details on the subject.

  • Promote the use of child safety and booster seat inspection stations. Parents in the focus groups said they rarely sought or received outside help with child safety seats and booster seats; instead, they overwhelmingly relied on the instructions and guidelines provided with the safety seat for guidance on selection and installation. Participants suggested that it would be helpful to have a wider range of easily accessible sites to properly inspect and install all safety seats. Such sites included "institutions" such as local health departments, community centers, police and fire stations, and motor vehicle departments, and "convenience locations" where seats are purchased (e.g., mass merchandisers), or temporary events at daily destinations. It appeared that younger men preferred installation stations at destination locations, since they were often unwilling to go out of their way to have safety seats checked.

Interestingly, while participants are suspicious of their law enforcement role, police officers are trusted to check child safety seats. Participants also indicated a desire for more Black technicians to install the seats.

Use of Seat Belts

Seat belt use among Blacks is inconsistent, with part-time use prevalent regardless of the community and the age of the participant. Most people believe that seat belts have a positive safety benefit, but often weigh that benefit against the perceived risks of each individual trip. Based on focus group results, the primary messages should:

  • Emphasize the need to buckle up at all times. Most participants who were part-time belt users said that they most frequently wear seat belts in situations they view as risky, such as traveling long distances, in poor weather conditions, and riding with young children. On perceived "low risk" trips, reasons for not wearing a belt included comfort, "lack of need," or social reasons (see below). There was little recognition of the fact that some crashes cannot be avoided and can occur in good weather and on short trips. For the most part, messages targeted to the general population are also relevant to the Black population with regard to these issues, so long as the message delivery is targeted properly.

  • Attempt to reverse the "cool" aspects of not buckling up. For younger participants, especially males, there was a strong relationship between driving and being "cool" (the term "cool" was used throughout the country). Often, young male participants said that when they drive or ride around, they are "styling and profiling", which makes buckling up not "cool." ("Styling and profiling" is an attempt to show off while driving). Reversing this perception among young Black males in particular is a key to increase seat belt use, and can also have an impact on their passengers.

  • Eliminate the social element of decisions to buckle up or not buckle up. Related to the social element, many participants cited interpersonal reasons to buckle up or not buckle up, particularly when passengers in vehicles driven by others. Some participants said they would buckle up when they are drivers, but not when they are passengers. One reason given was that passengers do not want to offend the driver. One participant said, "Drivers tease me when I buckle up and they ask, "Don't you think I am a good driver?" Others made the decision to buckle up based on whether they felt that the driver was skilled or unskilled. Education efforts in this area can focus on the fact that not all crashes are due to the actions or mistakes of the driver.

  • Continue dispelling the myth that wearing a seat belt can do more harm than good. As with other demographic groups, the "trapped in your car" stories and other second-hand seat belt danger stories exist in the Black population. While most participants recognized the benefits of seat belt use, some male focus group participants said that seat belts made them feel "locked in," as if they are imprisoned or overly restrained. Many participants felt that wearing a seat belt might cause whiplash during a crash. Some felt that you might actually be trapped and unable to get out of the car. The conclusion was that many participants felt that they were making a tradeoff of risks and benefits when wearing a seat belt, even if the benefits usually were perceived as greater. The key message should be that seat belts save lives and should be worn at all times.

Guidelines for Message Development

Previous sections discussed obstacles to be considered and content to be addressed when targeting messages to the Black community. This section provides general suggestions that may help to develop the tone of messages so they will resonate within Black communities, regardless of the market segment within the community. Communities across the country are different therefore it is important to pretest the message and gather feedback about the spokesperson before implementing a full campaign.

Messages Should Emphasize "Change by Choice" Rather Than "Change by Force"

Enforcement-related messages may have value in messages targeted to the Black community, but also carry significant risks. Many participants, particularly older people, had strong feelings of resistance to forced change, and racial profiling issues also increase sensitivity. While the message of enforcement may be appropriate for some audiences (Black women, for example, strongly endorsed using enforcement as a tool against drunk driving), educational themes or other less punitive messages were generally viewed more positively.

Messages can emphasize influence by example as an alternative approach. The stated desire to influence others may be likened to the cultural slogan, "Each One, Teach One." The sentiment shared by several participants was that if one person feels responsible for others (parents, children, or peers), he or she can set a positive example.

Messages Should Be Realistic

Focus group participants and opinion leaders in the selected communities recommended positive, realistic messages. These messages should portray truthful, ordinary people in believable situations. Participants felt strongly that it is essential to feature Blacks in future messages and ads that target African Americans. Participants said they were not interested in "blood and guts" images and themes. If celebrities were used, participants said that messages would be more effective if they were delivered by local celebrities, or those who had been personally affected by the issue. Some of the ad campaigns cited as being successful across all geographical, gender, and age groups were those addressing traffic safety using the crash-test dummies, safe sex, HIV/AIDS, drinking and driving, and anti-smoking ads. The crash-test dummies campaign, which combines realism with humor, was particularly popular with focus group participants.

Messages Should Be Factual, but not Rely Heavily on Statistics

Focus group participants said that ads with too many facts and statistics might not work in the Black community. Some of the male participants said they were suspicious that statistics of Black traffic fatalities and failure to use safety belts were untrue or misleading. Younger females simply did not find statistics (presented without a humanistic context) to be compelling. Distrust of the government is also tied to ineffective use of statistics. Conversely, some of the most memorable ads discussed by the focus groups showed actual crashes and victims, without the showing of blood or other potentially gory details. Participants in the study want honesty, truthfulness, and relevance.

Messages Should Incorporate Culturally Relevant Music

Culturally relevant music tends to get the attention of Black audiences because it is a staple part of Black culture across all ages, genders, and socioeconomic levels. However, diversity exists within the Black community concerning genres of music, so care must be taken in selecting music that appeals to each target group. (This is an area of strong age segmentation.)

Use Trusted Spokespeople and Sources

Focus group participants also expressed preferences in the types of people and organizations used to deliver transportation safety messages. Across all three key target groups, the following individuals and organizations consistently ranked high as trusted messengers and sources:

  • Families
    All age groups said that the family unit has the most influence in the Black community. Mothers, in particular, tend to be the strongest influencers within the family.

  • Churches
    When asked which organizations and/or professions were the most trusted in the Black community to deliver traffic safety messages, most participants indicated the church and its religious leaders. One specific reason for this is that people in the Black community tend to have more direct contact with their church than with any other entity.

  • Medical Professionals
    The individual professionals most often mentioned in all six focus group sites as credible spokespeople were doctors, nurses, and paramedics. These professionals see the effects of crashes everyday and have first-hand knowledge of the injury and fatality rates. Similarly, hospitals were listed as being among the most trusted entities to deliver safety messages, particularly in smaller communities where hospitals are more recognized as local institutions.

  • Schools
    Schools were selected as trustworthy sources for safety information, particularly to reach youth and teens.

Although law enforcement officials and politicians were thought to be the least trusted messengers, they are often critical to the success of highway traffic safety programs. Law enforcement officials and politicians can thus be useful "behind the scenes" providing local information and resources. Some of the one-on-one discussants and focus group participants in the small communities said that certain individual law enforcement officers and politicians in their communities could be considered as spokespersons because they had earned respect and trust from the Black community. One-on-one and focus group participants who did not identify these groups as possible spokespersons said that politicians and law enforcement officials could become credible spokespersons and gain respect and trust if their relationships with the community are improved.

Although churches were considered positive influences, religious leaders were consistently placed in both positive and negative categories when being considered for spokesperson roles. According to the findings of this study, the decision to use a religious leader should be made at the local level. Talking with representatives from the target community will better ensure the selection of the most effective spokesperson.

Channels of Delivery

The focus group participants cited several possible channels of delivery to effectively reach key target groups within the Black community. It is important to note however, that the selection of an appropriate channel of delivery is contingent upon a community's character, culture, and resources.

Also, selecting more than one channel of delivery can assist in the effective delivery of messages. Among these were:

  • Churches and other religious institutions. Churches were mentioned as major channels of message delivery, in that they play a vital political and social role within the community. Churches can disseminate messages and mobilize the community around every major issue affecting the congregation. Some churches, however must see the religious relevance of any message given to their congregation.

  • Personal interaction. Personal interaction was cited across all focus groups as another way to disseminate messages. The most effective types of personal interaction included participating in church-sponsored and school events; visits to local restaurants, barbershops, and beauty salons; and attending local sporting events.

  • Mass media. Radio and television were cited as the preferred sources of mass media information across all focus groups. Radio and television are particularly promising because market segmentation by race is fairly strong in many cases, which means that messages can be efficiently targeted to the Black population. Larger communities may be more effective at targeting the Black community, though, since they design and deliver messages on a local (i.e., metro area) level, whereas smaller communities may not receive locally targeted information via television or radio.

    • Radio. Radio was identified as an effective source of information across all focus groups. One Prince George's County participant said radio is especially good because "we spend so much time on the road in this area."

    • Television. Younger participants are avid viewers of music video channels, including MTV and BET, and hip-hop or other youth-oriented talk shows. Television market segmentation is well documented, and it is a relatively straightforward process to target to specific markets.

    • Newspapers. Across all focus groups, community-based and ethnic newspapers were distinguished from mainstream publications. Daily general market newspapers were considered ineffective sources of information for the Black community, while Black-oriented papers often have strong readership. However, small communities may not have Black-oriented newspapers and so may not be able to utilize this market channel.

    • Billboards. Focus group participants mentioned strategically-placed outdoor advertising as another viable option to reach the Black community. Similarly, brochures and posters strategically placed may serve as viable communication channels.

Implementation

The implementation of a communications program targeting Black communities may also benefit from public relations professionals for assistance. Black public relations professionals tend to have more experience in creating and implementing effective campaigns to this target demographic group. Non-profit organizations may want to consider asking a local public relations professional to provide pro bono or voluntary assistance. Resources to locate local public relations professionals include the Public Relations Society of America (www.prsa.org), the National Black Public Relations Society (www.nbprs.org), the International Association of Business Communicators (www.iabc.org), or the National Association of Black Journalists (www.nabj.org).

3 Kitwana, Bakari. 2002. The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis of American Culture. Basic Books. And Lee Hubbard’s article, “Speaking on the Hip Hop Generation” published on www.africana.com

4 For more information about the Hip-Hop generation see www.urbanthinktank.org, www.davyd.com and www.rap.about.com

5 Tyson, Christopher. 2001. Exploring the Generation Gap and Its Implications on African American Consciousness. Also see Doula: Journal of Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture available on www.urbanthinktank.org.