A Bibliography of Research Related to the Use of Wireless Communications Devices from Vehicles February 2005 DISCLAIMER This publication is distributed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in the interest of information exchange. The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the Department of Transportation or the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The United States Government assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof. If trade or manufacturers' names are mentioned, it is because they are considered essential to the object of the publication and should not be construed as an endorsement. The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Technical Report Documentation Page 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipients's Catalog No. 4. Title and Subtitle A Bibliography of Research Related to the Use of Wireless Communications Devices from Vehicles 5. Report Date February 2005 6. Performing Organization Code NHTSA Office of Advanced Vehicle Safety Research, Human Performance Division (NVS-331) 7. Author(s) Michael J. Goodman, NHTSA; Julie A. Barker, NHTSA; and Christopher A. Monk, Westat 8. Performing Organization Report No. 9. Performing Organization Name and Address National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 400 Seventh Street, S.W. Washington, DC 20590 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)n code 11. Contract of Grant No. 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 400 Seventh Street, S.W. Washington, DC 20590 13. Type of Report and Period Covered 14. Sponsoring Agency Code 15. Supplementary Notes 16. Abstract This document represents an up-to-date bibliography of available research conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and other organizations from the mid-1990s to 2005, as well as a brief overview of state legislative activity regarding wireless voice communications in vehicles. Note that in many cases the research included in this bibliographical listing are pertinent to the general issue of distraction by virtue of: (1) the similarity of actions and demands related to using wireless communication and other distracting actions in which drivers engage; (2) the inclusion of other distracting tasks in research studies; and (3) the scope of legislation or discussions of liability. The published research presented in this bibliography was drawn from all available sources the authors could identify based on personal knowledge, a comprehensive review of the literature, contacts with experts in the field and searches on the internet. In an effort to present an unbiased compilation, all published research studies were included regardless of their source or findings. The classification of research into source categories (i.e., type of source from which each citation is drawn) was made to facilitate access for the reader and does not reflect an indication of importance or relevance. The five categories identified for the purpose of this bibliography include: NHTSA, Journals, Conference Proceedings, Technical Reports, and Other Research/Sources. Within each category references are ordered by year of publication and then alphabetically by author. 17. Key Words Driver distraction, cell phones, wireless communication devices 18. Distribution Statement Document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161 19. Security Classif. (of this report) Unclassified 20. Security Classif. (of this page) Unclassified 21. No of Pages 22. Price Form DOT F1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 5 2. RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY - USING WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES WHILE DRIVING 5 Source of Citation: NHTSA 5 Source of Citation: JOURNALS 6 Source of Citation: CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 13 Source of Citation: TECHNICAL REPORTS 18 Source of Citation: OTHER RESEARCH/SOURCES 22 3. OVERVIEW OF ACTIVITY AT THE STATE LEVEL 23 3.1 Highlights of New York State Vehicle and Traffic Law - Title 7 Article 33 - 1225C Use of Mobile Telephones 24 3.2 Highlights of New Jersey's Section 4 of Title 39 of the Revised Statutes: C.39:4-97.3 Use of hands-free wireless telephone in moving vehicle 25 3.3 Highlights of the District of Columbia's Distracted Driving Safety Act of 2004 (L15-124) 26 4. AUTHOR INDEX 29 1. INTRODUCTION The following represents an up-to-date bibliography of available research conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and other organizations from the mid-1990s to 2005, as well as a brief overview of state legislative activity regarding wireless voice communications in vehicles. Note that in many cases the research included in this bibliographical listing are pertinent to the general issue of distraction by virtue of: (1) the similarity of actions and demands related to using wireless communication and other distracting actions in which drivers engage; (2) the inclusion of other distracting tasks in research studies; and (3) the scope of legislation or discussions of liability. The published research presented in this bibliography was drawn from all available sources the authors could identify based on personal knowledge, a comprehensive review of the literature, contacts with experts in the field and searches on the internet. In an effort to present an unbiased compilation, all published research studies were included regardless of their source or findings. The classification of research into source categories (i.e., type of source from which each citation is drawn) was made to facilitate access for the reader and does not reflect an indication of importance or relevance. The five categories identified for the purpose of this bibliography include: NHTSA, Journals, Conference Proceedings, Technical Reports, and Other Research/Sources. Within each category references are ordered by year of publication and then alphabetically by author. Additional information concerning NHTSA research on the issue of distraction in general, and cell phones in particular, can be found on the NHTSA website at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/departments/nrd-13/DriverDistraction.html. 2. RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY - USING WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES WHILE DRIVING SOURCE OF CITATION: NHTSA 2004 Shinar, D., Tractinsky, N., and Compton, R. (2004). Effects of practice from an auditory task while driving: A simulation study (DOT HS 809 826). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). See also Shinar, D., Tractinsky, N., and Compton, R. (2005). Effects of practice, age, and task demands, on interference from a phone task while driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37 (2), 315-326.. 2003 Royal, D. (2003). National Survey of Distracted and Drowsy Driving Attitudes and Behaviors: 2002, Volume 1 - Findings Report (NHTSA Research Note, DOT HS 809 566). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Available online at http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/drowsy_driving1/survey-distractive03/index.htm. [Last Accessed 9/10/04.] (The Gallup Organization, Washington, DC) 2001 Utter, D. (2001). Passenger Vehicle Driver Cell Phone Use Results from the Fall 2000 National Occupant Protection Use Survey (NHTSA Research Note DOT HS 809 293). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Boyle, J.M., and Vanderwolf, P. (2001). 2000 Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey Volume 4 Crash Injury and Emergency Medical Services Report (DOT HS 809 459). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). 2000 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Driver Distraction Internet Forum (2000). The site remains available as an information repository and can be accessed at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/departments/nrd-13/driver-distraction/Welcome.htm. 1997 Goodman, M.J., Bents, F.D., Tijerina, L., Wierwille, W.W., Lerner, N., and Benel, D. (1997). An Investigation of the Safety Implications of Wireless Communications in Vehicles (DOT HS 808-635). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). SOURCE OF CITATION: JOURNALS 2005 Pöysti, L., Rajalin, S., and Summala, H. (2005). Factors influencing the use of cellular (mobile) phone during driving and hazards while using it. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37 (1), 47-51. Shinar, D., Tractinsky, N., and Compton, R. (2005). Effects of practice, age, and task demands, on interference from a phone task while driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37 (2), 315-326. 2004 Atchley, P., and Dressel, J. (2004). Conversation Limits the Functional Field of View. Human Factors, 46 (4), 664-673. Gugerty, L., Rakauskas, M., and Brooks, J. (2004). Effects of remote and in-person verbal interactions on verbalization rates and attention to dynamic spatial scenes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36, 1029-1043. Jamson, A.H., Westerman, S.J., Hockey, G.R.J., and Carsten, O.M.J. (2004). Speech-Based E-Mail and Driver Behavior: Effects of an In-Vehicle Message System Interface. Human Factors, 46 (4), 625-639. Johnson, M.B., Voas, R.B., Lacey, J.H., McKnight, A.S., Lange, J.E. (2004). Living Dangerously: Driver Distraction at High Speed. Traffic Injury Prevention, 5 (1), 1-7. Lansdown, T., Brook-Carter, N., and Kersloot, T. (2004). Distraction from multiple in-vehicle secondary tasks: vehicle performance and mental workload implications. Ergonomics, 47 (1), 91-104. Lesch, M., and Hancock, P. (2004). Driving performance during concurrent cell-phone use: are drivers aware of their performance decrements? Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36 (3), 471-480. Marois, R., Yi, D-J., and Chun, M. (2004). The neural fate of consciously perceived and missed events in the attentional blink. Neuron, 41, 465-472. McCarley, J., Vais, M., Pringle, H., Kramer, A., Irwin, D., and Strayer, D. (2004). Conversation disrupts change detection in complex traffic scenes. Human Factors, 46, 424-436. McCartt, A.T. and Geary, L.L. (2004). Longer term effects of New York State's law on drivers' handheld cell phone use. Injury Prevention, 10, 11-15. McPhee, L.C., Scialfa, C.T., Dennis, W.M., Ho, G., and Caird, J.K. (2004). Age Differences in Visual Search for Traffic Signs During a Simulated Conversation. Human Factors, 46 (4), 674-685. Monk, C.A., Boehm-Davis, D.A., and Trafton, J.G. (2004). Recovering From Interruption: Implications for Driver Distraction Research. Human Factors, 46 (4), 650-663. Patten, C., Kircher, A., Östlund, J., and Nilsson, L. (2004). Using mobile telephones: cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36 (3), 341-350. Also in Patten, C.J.D. (Ed.). (2003). Vetenskaplig rapportsamling - Vägverkets utredning om anvääav mobiltelefoner och andra IT-system under körning (Publikation 2003:92). Borlänge, Sweden: Swedish National Road Administration (Vagverket). Rakauskas, M., Gugerty, L., Ward, N. (2004). Effects of naturalistic cell phone conversations on driving performance. Journal of Safety Research, 35, 453-464. Also, Poster presented at Second International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, in Park City, Utah, July 2003. Strayer, D.L., and Drews, F.A. (2004). Profiles in Driver Distractions: Effects of Cell Phone Conversations on Younger and Older Drivers. Human Factors, 46 (4), 640-649. Sullman, M.J.M., and Baas, P.H. (2004). Mobile phone use amongst New Zealand drivers. Transportation Research Part F, 7, 95-105. Tsimhoni, O., Smith, D., and Green, P. (2004). Address Entry While Driving: Speech Recognition Versus a Touch-Screen Keyboard. Human Factors, 46 (4), 600-610. White, M.P., Eiser, J.R., and Harris, P.R. (2004). Risk perceptions of mobile phone use while driving. Risk Analysis, 24 (2), 323-334. 2003 Abdel-Aty, M. (2003). Investigating the relationship between cellular use and traffic safety. Institute of Transportation Engineers ITE Journal (October 2003). Astrain, I., Bernaus, J., Claverol, J., Escobar, A., and Godoy, P. (2003). Prevalence of mobile phone use while driving vehicles. Gaceta Sanitaria, 17 (1), 66-69. (In Spanish.) Cohen, J.T., and Graham, J.D. (2003). A revised economic analysis of restrictions on the use of cell phones while driving. Risk Analysis, 1, 5-17. Consiglio, W., Driscoll, P., Witte, M., & Berg, W. (2003). Effect of cellular telephone conversations and other potential interference on reaction time in a braking response. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 495-500. Cooper, P., Zheng, Y., Richard, C., Vavrik, J., Heinrichs, B., and Siegmund, G. (2003). The impact of hands-free message reception/response on driving performance. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 23-35. Eby, D.W., and Vivoda, J.M. (2003). Driver hand-held mobile phone use and safety belt use. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 893-895. Hancock, P., Lesch, M., and Simmons, L. (2003). The distraction effects of phone use during a crucial driving maneuver. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 501-514. Harms, L., and Patten, C. (2003). Peripheral detection as a measure of driver distraction. A study of memory-based versus system-based navigation in a built-up area. Transportation Research Part F, 6 (1), 23-36. Laberge-Nadeau, C., Maag, U., Bellavance, F., Lapierre, S., Desjardins, D., Messier, S., and Saïdi, A. (2003). Wireless telephones and the risk of road crashes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 639-660. Liu, Y. (2003). Effects of Taiwan in-vehicle cellular audio phone system on driving performance. Safety Science, 41, 531-542. Matthews, R., Legg, S., and Charlton, S. (2003). The effect of cell phone type on drivers' subjective workload during concurrent driving and conversing. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35, 451-457. Michael, J.B. (2003). Liability for accidents from use and abuse of cell phones: When are employers and cell phone manufacturers liable? North Dakota Law Review, 79 (2), 299-310. Piechulla, W., Mayser, C., Gehrke, H., and Konig, W. (2003). Reducing drivers' mental workload by means of an adaptive man-machine interface. Transportation Research Part F, (6), 233-248. Recarte, M., and Nunes, L. (2003). Mental workload while driving: effects on visual search, discrimination, and decision making. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9 (2), 119-137. Spence, C., and Read, L. (2003). Speech shadowing while driving: on the difficulty of splitting attention between eye and ear. Psychological Science, 14, 251-256. Strayer, D., Drews, F., and Johnston, W. (2003). Cell phone-induced failures of visual attention during simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 9 (1), 23-32. Stutts, J.C., and Hunter, W.W. (2003). Driver inattention, driver distraction, and traffic crashes. ITE Journal, 73 (7), 34-45. Taylor, D., Bennett, D., Carter, M., and Garewal, D. (2003). Mobile telephone use among Melbourne drivers: a preventable exposure to injury risk. Medical Journal of Australia, 179, 140-142. Wilson, J., Fang, M., Wiggins, S., and Cooper, P. (2003). Collision and violation involvement of drivers who use cellular telephones. Traffic Injury Prevention, 4, 45-52. 2002 Cooper, P.J., and Zheng, Y. (2002). Turning gap acceptance decision-making: the impact of driver distraction. Journal of Safety Research, 33, 321-335. Horwitt, D. (2002). Driving while distracted: How should legislators regulate cell phone use behind the wheel? Journal of Legislation (University of Notre Dame), 28, 185-211. Jenness, J., Lattanzio, R., O'Toole, M., Taylor, N., and Pax, C. (2002). Effects of manual versus voice-activated dialing during simulated driving. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 363-379. Lam, L. (2002). Distractions and the risk of car crash injury: The effect of drivers' age. Journal of Safety Research, 33, 411-419. Lyda, L., Osborne, V.M., Coleman, P., and Rienzi, B. (2002). Age and distraction by telephone conversation in task performance: Implications for use of cellular telephones while driving. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94 (2), 391-394. Nunes, L. and Recarte, M. (2002). Cognitive demands of hands-free-phone conversation while driving. Transportation Research Part F, 5 (2), 133-144. Sodhi, M., Reimer, B., and Llamazares, I. (2002). Glance Analysis of Driver Eye Movements to Evaluate Distraction. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computing, 34 (4), 529-538. Salminen, S., and Lähdeniemi, E. (2002). Risk factors in work-related traffic. Transportation Research Part F, 5, 77-86. Salvucci, D.D., and Macuga, K.L. (2002). Predicting the effects of cellular-phone dialing on driver performance. Cognitive Systems Research, 3, 95-102. 2001 Alm, H., and Nilsson, L. (2001). The use of car phones and changes in driver behaviour. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 26 (1), 4-11. De Waard, D., Brookhuis, K.A., and Hernández-Gress, N. (2001). The feasibility of detecting phone-use related driver distraction. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 26 (1), 85-95. Fuse, T., Matsunaga, K., Shidoji, K., Matsuki, Y., and Umezaki, K. (2001). The cause of traffic accidents when drivers use car phones and the functional requirements of car phones for safe driving. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 26 (1), 48-56. Garcia-Larrea, L., Perchet, C., Perrin, F., and Amenedo, E. (2001). Interference of cellular phone conversations with visuomotor tasks: an ERP study. Journal of Psychophysiology, 15, 14-21. Graham, R., and Carter, C. (2001). Voice dialing can reduce the interference between concurrent tasks of driving and phoning. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 26 (1), 30-47. Haigney, D., and Westerman, S.J. (2001). Mobile (cellular) phone use and driving: a critical review of research methodology. Ergonomics, 44 (2), 132-143. Ishida, T., and Matsuura, T. (2001). The effect of cellular phone use on driving performance. IATSS Research, 25 (2), 6-14. Just, M.A., Carpenter, P.A., Keller, T.A., Emery, L., Zajac, H., and Thulborn, K.R. (2001). Interdependence of Nonoverlapping Cortical Systems in Dual Cognitive Tasks. NeuroImage, 14, 417-426. (Center for Cognitive Brain Imaging, dept of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University) Lee, J.D., Caven, B., Haake, S., and Brown, T.L. (2001). Speech-based interaction with in-vehicle computers: The effect of speech-based e-mail on drivers' attention to the roadway. Human Factors, 43 (4), 631-64. Murray, J., Ayres, T., Wood, C., and Humphrey, D. (2001). Mobile communications, driver distraction and vehicle accidents. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 26 (1), 70-84. Parkes, A.M., and Ward, N. (2001). 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In Proceedings of the First International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, Aspen, CO. pp. 147-152. Sisiopiku, V.P. (2001). Implications of cellular telelphony to traffic safety. In the Proceedings of the 14th ICTCT Workshop. Available online at: http://www.ictct.org/workshops/01-Caserta/Sisiopiku.pdf. [Last accessed 8/30/04.] Strayer, D.L., Drews, F.A., Albert, R.W., and Johnston, W.A. (2001). Cell phone induced perceptual impairments during simulated driving. In Proceedings of the First International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design. Aspen, CO. pp. 14-19. Tokunaga, R.A., Shimojo, A., Hagiwara, T., Kagaya, S., and Uchida, K. (2001). Effects of cellular telephone use while driving based on objective and subjective mental workload assessment. In Proceedings of the First International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design. 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Wisconsin Department of Transportation, Division of State Patrol, Division of Motor Vehicles, and Bureau of Transportation Safety. Available online at: http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/statepatrol/docs/cell-phone-use-in-crashes.pdf [Last accessed August 30, 2004.] Young, K., Regan, M., and Hammer, M. (2003). Driver distraction: a review of the literature (Report #206). Australia: Monash University Accident Research Centre. Available online at http://www.general.monash.edu.au/MUARC/pub2003.htm. 2002 Beirness, D.J., Simpson, H.M., and Desmond, K. (2002). The Road Safety Monitor 2002: Risky Driving. Ontario, Canada: Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Burch, D. (2002). The Mobile Phone Report: A report on the effects of using a 'hand-held' and 'hands-free' mobile phone on road safety. Croydon, London: Direct Line Insurance plc. Burns, P.C., Parkes, A., Burton, S., Smith, R., and Burch, D. (2002). How dangerous is driving with a mobile telephone? Benchmarking the impairment to alcohol (TRL Report TRL547). Crowthorne, UK: Transport Research Laboratory. California Highway Patrol. (2002a). Driver distractions and inattention data summary, Assembly Bill 770, Chapter 710 (November 2002). Report to the Governor and Legislature 2001/2002. Sacramento, California: Author. (Prepared by Commissioner D.O. Helmick) California Highway Patrol. (2002b). Provisional 2001 Statewide Collision Totals and Selected Inattentions. Sacramento, California: California Highway Patrol Office of Public Affairs. Hahn, R.W., and Dudley, P.M. (2002). The Disconnect Between Law and Policy Analysis: A Case Study of Drivers and Cell Phones (Working Paper 02-7). Washington, DC: The AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies. Available online at http://www.aei.brookings.org. [Last accessed on 9/10/04.] Harbluk, J.L., Noy, Y.I., and Eizenman, M. (2002). The Impact of Cognitive Distraction on Driver Visual Behaviour and Vehicle Control (Report TP# 13889 E). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Transport Canada. McCartt, A.T., Braver, E.R., and Geary, L.L. (2002). Drivers' Use of Hand-Held Cell Phones Before and After New York State's Cell Phone Law. Arlington, Virginia: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). Reimer, B., Sodhi, M., and Llamazares, I. (2002). Glance Analysis of Driver Eye Movements (Report Dated March 15, 2002). Kingston, RI: The University of Rhode Island. Salzberg, P. (2002). Cell Phone Use by Motor Vehicle drivers in Washington State. Olympia, Washington: Washington Traffic Safety Commission. Stutts, J.C., Huang, H.F., and Hunter, W.W. (2002). Cell Phone Use While Driving in North Carolina: 2002 Update Report. Final Project Report to the North Carolina Governor's Highway Safety Program. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, Highway Safety Research Center (UNC HSRC) . Available online at: http://www.hsrc.unc.edu/pdf/2002/CellPhone2002Report.pdf. [Last accessed on 8/30/04.] Transport Research Laboratory. (2002). Mobile Phone Use by Car Drivers, 2000-2002 (LF2088). United Kingdom. Available online at http://www.trl.co.uk/abstracts/LF2088.pdf. [Last accessed on 8/30/04.] Wilson, J., Cooper, P., Fang, M., and Wiggins, S. (May 2002). Collision and Violation Involvement of drivers Who Use Cellular Telephones (Technical Report). North Vancouver, British Columbia: Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC). 2001 Crawford, J.A., Manser, M.P., Jenkins, J.M., Court, C.M., and Sepúlveda, E.D. (2001). Extent and effects of handheld cellular telephone use while driving (Report No. SWUTC/01/167706-1). College Station, TX: Texas A&M University System, Texas Transportation Institute (TTI). Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC) (2001). The Impact of Auditory Tasks (as in hands-free cell phone use) on Driving Performance. (Online at www.icbc.com). North Vancouver, British Columbia: Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC). Laberge-Nadeau, C., Maag, U., Bellavance, F., Desjardins, D., Messier, S., and Saïdi, A. (2001). Wireless telephones and the risk of road accidents (Final report, CRT-2001-16). Montreal, Canada: Laboratoire sur la sécurité des transports, Université de Montreal. Nowakowski, C., Friedman, D., and Green, P. (2001a). An Experimental Evaluation of Using Automotive HUDs to Reduce Driver Distraction while Answering Cell Phones. (Technical Report UMTRI-2001-29). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI). Nowakowski, C., Friedman, D., and Green, P. (2001b). Cell Phone Ring Suppression and HUD Caller ID: Effectiveness in Reducing Momentary Driver Distraction Under Varying Workload Levels (Report No. UMTRI-2000-29). Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI). Reinfurt, D.W., Huang, H.F., Feaganes, J.R., and Hunter, W.W. (2001). Cell Phone Use While Driving in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC : University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center (UNC HSRC). Prepared for the North Carolina Governor's Highway Safety Program. Available online at: http://www.hsrc.unc.edu/pdf/2001/cellphone.pdf. [Last accessed 9/10/04.] Smith, E. (2001). University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center Study on Distracted Driving : Outline of Results, Methodology, and Data Limitations (May 8, 2001). Available online at http://www.aaafoundation.org/projects/index.cfm (keyword Distracted driving). [Last accessed 9/10/04.] Stutts, J.C., Reinfurt, D.W., Staplin, L., and Rodgman, E.A. (2001). The role of driver distraction in traffic crashes. Phase I Final Project Report. Chapel Hill, NC : University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center (UNC HSRC). Available online at http://www.aaafoundation.org/projects/index.cfm (keyword Distracted driving). [Last accessed 9/10/04.] 2000 Lissy, K.S., Cohen, J.T., Park, M.Y., and Graham, J.D. (2000). Cellular Phone Use While Driving: Risks and Benefits. Boston, MA: Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, Harvard School of Public Health. 1999 Hahn, R.W., and Tetlock, P.C. (1999). The Economics of Regulating Cellular Phones in Vehicles (Working Paper #99-9). Washington, DC: The AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies. 1998 Haigney, D.E., and Taylor, R.G. (1998). Mobile Phone use Whilst Driving: Phone Operation vs. Vehicle Transmission. (Online at www.rospa.co.uk). Birmingham, UK: Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents. 1991 McKnight, A.J., and McKnight, A.S. (1991). The effect of cellular phone use upon driver attention. Landover, MD: National Public Services Research Institute. Performed under grant from the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Online at www.aaafoundation.org. SOURCE OF CITATION: OTHER RESEARCH/SOURCES 2004 Michael, J.B. (2004). Automobile Accidents Associated with Cell Phone Use: Can Cell Phone Service Providers and Manufacturers Be Held Liable Under a Theory of Negligence? Unpublished manuscript. (Available from Jordan B. Michael, 27 Middlesex Circle Suite 10, Waltham, MA 02452-6202, email: JMichael@bentley.edu) 2003 National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) (2003). Cell Phones and Highway Safety. 2003 State Legislative Update. Washington, DC: NCSL. (Program Principal: Matt Sundeen) Online at http://www.ncsl.org/programs/transportation/cellphoneupdate1203.htm Last Accessed 9/13/04. Treffner, P., Petersen, A., and Barrett, R. (2003). Speaking on a hands-free mobile phone while driving degrades perception of affordances. To appear in Gale, A. (Ed.). Vision in Vehicles 10, University of Derby Press. Unedited pre-print obtained from http://www.int.gu.edu.au/~s227447/driving/mobiles.htm or http://www.int.gu.edu.au/~s227447/publications.html, last accessed August 30, 2004. Also obtained from http://www.bekkoame.ne.jp/~yoshie1/test.html on January 13, 2005. (Contact P. Treffner. Griffith University, Australia, for more information.) 2002 Minnesota House of Representatives Research Department (John Williams, Legislative Analyst) (2002, October). Cell Phones and Driving (Information Brief). Extracted from http://www.house.leg.state.mn.us/hrd/pubs/cellphdrvg.pdf. National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) (2002). Along for the Ride: Reducing driver distractions - Final Report of the Driver Focus and Technology Forum. Washington, DC: NCSL. 2001 Joint State Government Commission, General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (2001). Driver Distractions and Traffic Safety (2000 Senate Resolution No. 127, Printer's No. 1935). Harrisburg, PA: Joint State Government Commission. Parkes, A.M., and Hooijmeijer, V. (2001). Driver Situation Awareness and Carphone Use (paper submitted for publication in July 2001). Crowthorne, England: Transport Research Laboratory. Stutts, J.C. (2001). Testimony for Presentation at the Subcommittee on Highways and Transit hearing on Driver Distractions: Electronic Devices in the Automobile (May 9, 2001). Available online at http://www.aaafoundation.org/projects/index.cfm (keyword Distracted driving). [Last accessed 9/10/04.] 1997 Pauzié, A., and Pachiaudi, G. (1997). Subjective evaluation of the mental workload in the driving context. In T. Rothengatter and E.C. Vaya's (Eds.) Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application. Pergamon: Amsterdam. 3. OVERVIEW OF ACTIVITY AT THE STATE LEVEL As reported by the National Conference of State Legislatures, few states specifically regulate wireless phone use in motor vehicles. In particular (as of September 2004), * As of November 1, 2001, New York prohibits drivers from talking on hand-held cell phones while driving. * As of July 1, 2004, New Jersey prohibits drivers from talking on hand-held cell phones while driving, but this is only enforceable as a secondary traffic violation. * The District of Columbia enacted a law in 2004 (effective July 1, 2004) that bans the use of hand-held phones (with certain restrictions) by all drivers, bans the use of any cell phones by novice drivers and school bus drivers, and also addresses distracted driving in general. * In September 2004, California enacted a law (effective January 1, 2005) that makes it illegal to use a cellular phone while driving a school bus or other public-transit vehicle. * California requires that rental cars with cellular telephones must include written operating instructions for safe use of the phone. * Florida and Illinois allow cell phone use in the car as long as sound to both ears of the driver is not impaired. * Arizona, Delaware, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Tennessee have enacted legislation that prohibits the use of cell phones while operating a school bus. * Delaware clarified that school bus drivers can use a radio or telephone device to make or receive calls for assistance. * Massachusetts also requires that all drivers have at least one hand on the steering wheel at all times while using a cell phone. * New Jersey enacted legislation in 2002 that prohibits the holder of a driver examination permit from using any interactive wireless device while operating a motor vehicle, with emergency use exceptions. * Maine enacted legislation in 2003 that prohibits drivers with only an instruction permit from using a mobile telephone (a device used to access a wireless telephone service) while operating a motor vehicle. In addition, * Delaware, Louisiana, Virginia, New Jersey, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia have approved resolutions to study the risks associated with cell phones and driving. * New Jersey passed a measure to provide for data collection and also prohibits drivers with learner's permits from using a cell phone while driving. * Illinois allows the use of one-sided hands-free headsets with cell phones. * New Hampshire passed a comprehensive distracted driving law. * Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, Oklahoma and Oregon are preventing local jurisdictions from enacting ordinances regarding cell phone use while driving. * At least 16 states - California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas - and the District of Columbia collect information on crash report forms about cell phones and driver distractions. 3.1 HIGHLIGHTS OF NEW YORK STATE VEHICLE AND TRAFFIC LAW - TITLE 7 ARTICLE 33 - 1225C USE OF MOBILE TELEPHONES * Date of Applicability: November 1, 2001 * Primary traffic offense * Definitions - "Mobile telephone" shall mean the device used by subscribers and other users of wireless telephone service to access such service. - "Wireless telephone service" shall mean two-way real time voice telecommunications service that is interconnected to a public switched telephone network and is provided by a commercial mobile radio service. - "Using" shall mean holding a mobile telephone to, or in the immediate proximity of, the user's ear. - "Hand-held mobile telephone shall mean a mobile telephone with which a user engages in a call using at least one hand. - "Hands-free mobile telephone" shall mean a mobile telephone that has an internal feature or function, or that is equipped with an attachment or addition, whether or not permanently part of such mobile telephone, by which a user engages in a call without the use of either hand, whether or not the use of either hand is necessary to activate, deactivate or initiate a function of such telephone. - "Engage in a call" shall mean talking into or listening on a hand-held mobile telephone, but shall not include holding a mobile telephone to activate, deactivate or initiate a function of such telephone. - "Immediate proximity" shall mean that distance as permits the operator of a mobile telephone to hear telecommunications transmitted over such mobile telephone, but shall not require physical contact with such operator's ear. * No person shall operate a motor vehicle upon a public highway while using a mobile telephone to engage in a call while such vehicle is in motion if the operator of a motor vehicle holds a mobile telephone to, or in the immediate proximity of his or her ear. * This law shall not apply to the use of a mobile telephone for the sole purpose of communicating with any of the following regarding an emergency situation: - An emergency response operator - A hospital - A physician's office or health clinic - An ambulance company or corps - A fire department, district or company - A police department Or any of the following persons while in the performance of their official duties: - A police officer or peace officer - A member of a fire department, district or company - The operator of an authorized emergency vehicle as defined by law. Or the use of a hands-free mobile telephone. 3.2 HIGHLIGHTS OF NEW JERSEY'S SECTION 4 OF TITLE 39 OF THE REVISED STATUTES: C.39:4-97.3 USE OF HANDS-FREE WIRELESS TELEPHONE IN MOVING VEHICLE * Date of Applicability: July 1, 2004 * Secondary traffic offense * Definitions - "Hands-free wireless telephone" means a mobile telephone that has an internal feature or function, or that is equipped with an attachment or addition, whether or not permanently part of such mobile telephone, by which a user engages in a conversation without the use of either hand; provided, however, this definition shall not preclude the use of either hand to activate, deactivate, or initiate a function of the telephone. - "Use" of a wireless telephone shall include, but not be limited to, talking or listening to another person on the telephone. * The use of a wireless telephone by an operator of a moving vehicle on a public road or highway shall be unlawful except when the telephone is a hands-free wireless telephone, provided that its placement does not interfere with the operation of federally required safety equipment and the operator exercises a high degree of caution in the operation of the motor vehicle. * The operator of a motor vehicle may use a hand-held wireless telephone while driving with one hand on the steering wheel only if: - The operator has reason to fear for his life or safety, or believes that a criminal act may be perpetrated against himself or another person; - The operator is using the telephone to report to appropriate authorities a fire, a traffic accident, a serious road hazard or medical or hazardous materials emergency, or to report the operator of another motor vehicle who is driving in a reckless, careless, or otherwise unsafe manner or who appears to be driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. * Enforcement of this act by State or local law enforcement officers shall be accomplished only as a secondary action when the operator of a motor vehicle has been detained for another violation. * The prohibitions set forth in this act shall not be applicable to any of the following persons while in the actual performance of their official duties: a law enforcement officer; a member of a paid, part-paid, or volunteer fire department or company; or an operator of an authorized emergency vehicle. 3.3 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA'S DISTRACTED DRIVING SAFETY ACT OF 2004 (L15-124) * Date of Applicability: July 1, 2004 * Primary traffic offense * Definitions - "Distracted driving" means inattentive driving while operating a motor vehicle that results in the unsafe operation of the vehicle where such inattention is caused by reading, writing, performing personal grooming, interacting with pets or unsecured cargo, using personal communications technologies, or engaging in any other activity which causes distractions. - "Hands-free accessory" means an attachment, add-on, built-in feature, or addition to a mobile telephone, whether or not permanently installed in a motor vehicle, that when used allows the vehicle operator to maintain both hands on the steering wheel. - "Mobile telephone" means a cellular, analog, wireless, or digital telephone capable of sending or receiving telephone messages without an access line for service. - "Other electronic devices" includes, but is not limited to, hand-held computers, pagers, and video games. - "Use" means talking, placing, or receiving a call, or attempting to place or receive a call, on a mobile telephone. * Distracted driving shall be prohibited. * No person shall use a mobile telephone or other electronic device while operating a moving motor vehicle in the District of Columbia unless the telephone or device is equipped with a hands-free accessory. The provisions shall not apply to the following: - Emergency use of a mobile telephone, including calls to 911 or 311, a hospital, an ambulance service provider, a fire department, a law enforcement agency, or a first-aid squad; - Use of a mobile telephone by law enforcement and emergency personnel or by a driver of an authorized emergency vehicle, acting within the scope of official duties; or - Initiating or terminating a telephone call, or turning the telephone on or off. * A person shall not use a mobile telephone or other electronic device, including those with hands-free accessories, while operating a moving school bus that is carrying passengers; does not apply to school bus driver who places an emergency call to school officials or to exceptions indicated above. * A person who holds a learner's permit shall be prohibited from using any mobile telephone or other electronic device, including those with hands-free accessories, while operating a moving motor vehicle on a public roadway except in an emergency, as indicated above. This law also provides for the following: * Whenever the Metropolitan Police Department makes a written report on an accident involving a motor vehicle, the report shall include the following information: - Whether a mobile telephone or other electronic device was present in the motor vehicle; - Whether the use of a mobile telephone or other electronic device by a motor vehicle operator may have contributed to the cause of the accident; - Whether any other distraction may have contributed to the cause of the accident. * The Director of the Department of Motor Vehicles shall include educational information on the use of mobile telephones and other electronic devices while driving in the District's Driver and Motorcycle Operator's Study Guide. The Director shall also include questions pertaining to distracted driving and mobile telephone usage while driving on the driver's license exam. * The Director of the Distract Department of Transportation shall annually publish and submit to the Council a report containing statistics regarding the possible relationship between motor vehicle accidents in the Distract of Columbia and the use of mobile telephones or other electronic devices by motor vehicle operators. * The Mayor shall, within 2 years and 6 months after the effective date of this act, submit a report to the Council containing recommendations concerning the use of mobile telephones or other electronic device in motor vehicles. The report shall include a recommendation as to whether the provisions of this act should be amended. Projected date is December 2006. This Page Left Blank Intentionally. 4. AUTHOR INDEX AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 19 Abdel-Aty, M., 8 AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, 18, 20, 22 Albert, R.W., 17 Alm, H., 10, 13 Al-Tarawneh, I.S., 13, 15 Amenedo, E., 10 Angers, J-F., 15, 18 Artz, B., 15 Astrain, I., 8 Atchley, P., 7 Aymerich, M., 13 Ayres, T., 11 Baas, P.H., 8 Backs, R.W., 15 Bains, M., 13 Barrett, R., 22 Beirness, D.J., 19 Bellavance, F., 9, 15, 18, 21 Benel, D., 6 Bennett, D., 9 Bents, F.D., 6, 12 Berg, W.P., 8, 11 Bernaus, J., 8 Bhise, V.D., 16 Bishu, R.R., 13, 15 Blanco, M., 14 Blommer M., 15 Boehm-Davis, D.A., 7 Bolling, A., 18, 19 Bourhattas, M., 15 Boyle, J.M., 6 Braver, E.R., 20 Briem, V., 13 Brook-Carter, N., 7 Brookhuis, K.A., 10 Brooks, J., 7 Brown, T.L., 11 Burch, D., 19 Burnett, J.K., 11 Burns, P.C., 14, 15, 19 Burton, S., 19 Caird, J., 7, 14 California Highway Patrol, 20 Carnegie Mellow University, 11 Carpenter, P.A., 11 Carsten, O.M.J., 7 Carter, C., 10 Carter, M., 9 Cathey, L., 15 Caven, B., 11 Ceci, R., 18, 19 Chapman, P., 13 Charlton, S., 9 Cher, D.J., 12 Christens, P., 15 Chun, M., 7 Claverol, J., 8 Cohen, J.T., 8, 21 Cohen, W.J., 13 Coleman, P., 10 Compton, R., 5, 6 Consiglio, W., 8 Cooper, J.M.,, 15 Cooper, P.J., 8, 9, 20 Courchesne, S., 15 Court, C.M., 20 Crawford, J.A., 16, 20 Crouch, D.J., 16, 18 Crundall, D., 13 Cunill, M., 13 Curry, R., 15 De Waard, D., 10 Dennis, W.M., 7 Desjardins, D., 9, 18, 21 Desmond, K., 19 Dickinson, L.V., 15 Dowd, J.D., 16 Dressel, J., 7 Drews, F.A., 8, 9, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18 Driscoll, P., 8 Dudley, P.M., 20 Eby, D.W., 8 Eiser, J.R., 8 Eizenman, M., 20 Ellis, J.M., 18 Emery, L., 11 Esbjörnsson, M., 15 Escobar, A., 8 ExxonMobil, 18 Fang, M., 9, 20 Feaganes, J.R., 19, 21 Fitzgerald, C., 11 Friedman, D., 16, 21 Fuse, T., 10 Garcia-Larrea, L., 10 Garewal, D., 9 Geary, L.L., 7, 20 Gehrke, H., 9 Gish, K., 19 Glaze, A.L., 18 Glumm, M., 17 Godoy, P., 8 Goodman, M.J., 6, 12 Graham, J.D., 8, 21 Graham, R., 10 Grant, P., 15 Gras, M., 13 Green, P., 8, 12, 16, 21 Greenberg, J., 15 Gugerty, L., 7, 8 Gustafsson, S., 14, 18 Haake, S., 11 Hagiwara, T., 11, 17 Hahn, R.W., 11, 18, 20, 22 Haigney, D.E., 10, 11, 22 Hamlett, C., 19 Hammer, M., 19 Hammoud, S., 15 Hancock, P.A., 7, 8, 12, 17 Hankey, J., 14 Harbluk, J.L., 16, 20 Harms, L., 8 Harris, P.R., 8 Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 21 Hasemi, L., 12 Hedman, L.R., 13 Heinrichs, B., 8 Hels, T., 15 Hernández-Gress, N., 10 Ho, G., 7 Hockey, G.R.J., 7 Hooijmeijer, V., 17, 23 Horrey, W.J., 14 Horwitt, D., 9 Howarth, H., 12 Huang, H.F., 16, 19, 20, 21 Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES), 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 Humphrey, D., 11 Hunter, W.W., 9, 16, 20, 21 Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC), 20, 21 Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), 20 Irwin, D.E., 7, 17 Irwin, M., 11 Ishida, T., 11 Jamson, A.H., 7 Jenkins, J.M., 20 Jenness, J., 10, 16 Johnson, M.B., 7 Johnston, W.A., 9, 11, 17 Joint State Government Commission, General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 23 Juhlin, O., 15 Just, M.A., 11 Kagaya, S., 11, 17 Kauranen, T., 12 Keller, T.A., 11 Kelsh, M., 12 Kersloot, T., 7 Kilduff, P., 17 Kircher, A., 7, 18, 19 Kochhar, P., 15 Konig, W., 9 Kozak, K., 15 Kramer, A., 7, 17 Krauss, D., 13 Laakso, M., 12 Laberge, J., 14 Laberge-Nadeau, C., 9, 15, 21 LaBerge-Nadeau, C., 18 Lacey, J.H., 7 Lähdeniemi, E., 10 Lam, L., 10 Lamble, D., 12 Lange, J.E., 7 Lansdown, T., 7, 15 Lapierre, S., 9, 15, 18 Latour, R., 18 Lattanzio, R., 10, 16 Lee, J.D., 11, 14 Legg, S., 9 Lehman, R., 17 Lerner, N., 6 Lesch, M., 7, 8, 17 Lin, J., 11 Lissy, K.S., 21 Liu, Y., 9 Llamazares, I., 10, 20 Luke, T., 14 Luukkanen, L., 14 Lyda, L., 10 Maag, U., 9, 18, 21 Macuga, K.L., 10 Malmström, T., 18, 19 Manser, M.P., 20 Marois, R., 7 Marshall, J.R., 13 Matsuki, Y., 10 Matsunaga, K., 10 Matsuura, T., 11 Matthews, R., 9 Mayser, C., 9 Mazzae, E., 14 McCarley, J., 7 McCarley, J.S., 17 McCartt, A.T., 7, 20 McKnight, A.J., 13, 22 McKnight, A.S., 7, 13, 22 McPhee, L.C., 7 Meadows, T., 19 Mercadante, M., 19 Messier, S., 9, 15, 18, 21 Michael, J.B., 9, 22 Minnesota House of Representatives Research Department, 23 Monash University Accident Research Centre, 19 Monk, C.A., 7 Monteressi, C., 18 Moray, N., 12 Mouloua, M., 17 Mrad, R.J., 12 Murray, J., 11 National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL), 22, 23 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 6 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), 19 NHTSA, 6 NHTSA Driver Distraction Internet Forum, 6 Nilsson, L., 7, 10, 13, 18, 19 Nowakowski, C., 16, 21 Noy, Y.I., 20 Nunes, L., 9, 10, 11 O'Toole, M., 10, 16 Onodera, Y., 11 Osborne, V.M., 10 Östlund, J., 7 Owens, J.M., 17 Pachiaudi, G., 23 Park, M.Y., 21 Parkes, A.M., 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 23 Pasupathi, M., 13 Patten, C., 7, 8, 18, 19 Pauzié, A., 23 Pax, C., 10 Perchet, C., 10 Perrin, F., 10 Petersen, A., 22 Piechulla, W., 9 Pillalamarri, R., 17 Planes, M., 13 Poirier, L-F., 15 Pöysti, L., 6 Prieger, J.E., 18 Pringle, H., 7, 17 Rajalin, S., 6, 14 Rakauskas, M., 7, 8 Ranney, T., 12, 14 Read, L., 9 Recarte, M., 9, 10, 11 Redelmeier, D.A., 12 Reed, M., 12 Regan, M., 19 Reimer, B., 10, 20 Reinfurt, D., 19, 21 Reinfurt, D.W., 21 Reyes, M.L., 14 Richard, C., 8 Rienzi, B., 10 Rodgman, E., 19, 21 Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents, 22 Royal, D., 6 Sagberg, F., 11 Saïdi, A., 9, 21 Salminen, S., 10 Salvucci, D.D., 10 Salzberg, P., 20 Scallen, F., 12 Schreiner, C.S., 14 Scialfa, C., 7, 14 Sepúlveda, E.D., 20 Sheffert, S.M., 15 Shidoji, K., 10 Shimojo, A., 17 Shinar, D., 5, 6 Siegmund, G., 8 Simmons, L., 8, 12, 17 Simpson, H.M., 19 Sisiopiku, V.P., 17 Smid, E., 16 Smiley, A., 12 Smith, D., 8 Smith, E., 21 Smith, R., 14, 19 Smyth, C., 17 Sodhi, M., 10, 20 Spence, C., 9 Staplin, L., 19, 21 Statistical Society of Canada, 15 Strayer, D., 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18 Stutts, J.C., 9, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23 Sullman, M., 8, 13 Summala, H., 6, 12, 14 Svensson, O., 19 Swedish National Road Administration (SNRA), 7, 15, 18, 19 Tauson, R., 17 Taylor, D., 9 Taylor, N., 10, 16 Taylor, R.G., 11, 22 Tetlock, P.C., 11, 22 Texas Transportation Institute (TTI), 20 The Gallup Organization, 6 Thulborn, K.R., 11 Thulin, H., 14, 18 Tibshirani, R.J., 12 Tijerina, L., 6, 12, 15 Tokunaga, R.A., 11, 17 Törnros, J., 18, 19 Trachtman, D., 13 Tractinsky, N., 5, 6 Traffic Injury Research Foundation (TIRF), 19 Trafton, J.G., 7 Transport Canada, 20 Transport Research Laboratory, 19, 20, 23 Trbovich, P., 16 Treffner, P., 22 Troglauer, T., 15 Tsimhoni, O., 8 Uchida, K., 17 Umezaki, K., 10 Underwood, G., 13 University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI), 21 University of Montreal, 21 University of North Carolina, Highway Safety Research Center (UNC HSRC), 20, 21 University of Rhode Island, 20 Utter, D., 6 Vais, M., 7, 17 Vanderwolf, P., 6 Vavrik, J., 8 Violanti, J.M., 12, 13 Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU), 18 Vivoda, J.M., 8 Voas, R.B., 7 Vogel, K., 18, 19 VTI/Swedish National Board and Transport Research Institute, 18 Ward, N., 8, 11 Washington Traffic Safety Commision, 20 Watson, G., 14 Waugh, J., 17 Weinstein, M.C., 12 Westerman, S.J., 7, 10, 11 Wetzel, J.M., 15 White, C., 14 White, M.P., 8 Wickens, C.D., 14 Wierwille, W.W., 6, 12 Wiggins, S., 9, 20 Wightman, J., 14 Wilcox, S.B., 18 Wilson, J., 9, 20 Wisconsin State Patrol, 19 Witte, M., 8 Woo, T.H., 11 Wood, C., 11 Yi, D-J., 7 Young, K., 19 Zajac, H., 11 Zheng, Y., 8, 9 34