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AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety (AAAFTS). (2018). 2017 traffic safety culture index.

AAAFTS. (2021). 2020 traffic safety culture index 

Alcohol Epidemiology Program (AEP). (2013). Alcohol compliance checks: A procedures manual for enforcing alcohol age-of-sale laws. University of Minnesota.

Alcohol Policy Information System (APIS). (2022). Underage drinking: Policy topics.

American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP). (2006). Alcohol screenings and brief interventions in the emergency department.

Axel, N. E., Knisely, M. J., McMillen, P., Weiser, L. A., Kinnard, K., Love, T., & Cash, C. (2019). Best practices for implementing a state judicial outreach liaison program (Report No. DOT HS 812 676). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Bailey, S., Soole, D., Cattermole-Terzic, V., & Osmond, S. (2018). Toward a performance-based approach to the Queensland Alcohol Ignition Interlock Program: The impact of performance record on risk of recidivism. In Proceedings of the Australasian Road Safety Conference, 2018, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Barrett, H., Vanlaar, W. G. M., & Robertson, R. D. (2017). Safe rides as an alternative to alcohol-impaired driving and their effects: A literature review. Traffic Injury Research Foundation.

Barry, V., Schumacher, A., & Sauber-Schatz, E. (2022). Alcohol-impaired driving among adults—USA, 2014–2018. Injury Prevention, 28(3), 211-217.

Barta, W. D., Fisher, V., & Hynes, P. (2017). Decreased re-conviction rates of DUI offenders with intensive supervision and home confinement. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse43(6), 742-746.

Beirness, D. J., & Beasley, E. E. (2014). An evaluation of immediate roadside prohibitions for drinking drivers in British Columbia: Findings from roadside surveys. Traffic Injury Prevention, 15(3), 288-233.

Beirness, D. J., Clayton, A., & Vanlaar, W. (2008). An investigation of the usefulness, the acceptability and impact on lifestyle of alcohol ignition interlocks in drink-driving offenders (Report No. 88). United Kingdom Department for Transport.

Beirness, D. J., & Marques, P. R. (2004). Alcohol ignition interlock programs. Traffic Injury Prevention5(3), 299-308.

Beirness, D. J., & Robertson, R. D. (2005). Alcohol interlock programs: Enhancing acceptance, participation and compliance. Traffic Injury Research Foundation.

Bergen, G., Pitan, A., Qu, S., Shults, R. A., Chattopadhyay, S. K., Elder, R. W., Sleet, D. A., Coleman, H. L., Compton, R. P., Nichols, J. L., Clymer, J. M., Calvert, W. B., & the Community Preventive Services Task Force. (2014). Publicized sobriety checkpoint programs: A community guide systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 46(5), 529-539.

Berning, A., Compton, R., Vegega, M., Beirness, D., Hedlund, J., Jones, R., & Nichols, J. (2008). Refusal of intoxication testing: A Report to Congress (Report No. DOT HS 811 098). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Berning, A., Compton, R., & Wochinger, K. (2015). Results of the 2013–2014 National Roadside Survey of alcohol and drug use by drivers (Traffic Safety Facts Research Note. Report No. DOT HS 812 118). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Bloch, S., Shinkle, D., & Bates, J. (2020). Traffic safety trends: State legislative action 2020. National Conference of State Legislatures.

Blomberg Second Measure (2022). Uber vs. Lyft: Who’s tops in the battle of U.S. rideshare companies.

Blomberg, R. D. (1992). Lower BAC limits for youth: Evaluation of the Maryland .02 law (Report No. DOT HS 807 859). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 

Blomberg, R. D., Wright, T. J., & Thomas, F. D. (2019). DWI history of fatally injured pedestrians (Report No. DOT HS 812 748). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2007). School-based programmes to prevent alcohol, tobacco and other drug use. International Review of Psychiatry19(6), 607-615.

Brunson, W., & Knighten, P. (Eds.). (2005). Strategies for addressing the DWI offender: 10 promising sentencing practices (Report No. DOT HS 809 850). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Byrne, P. A., Ma, T., & Elzohairy, Y. (2016). Vehicle impoundments improve drinking and driving license suspension outcomes: Large-scale evidence from Ontario. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 95(A), 125-131.

Byrne, P. A., Ma, T., Mann, R. E., & Elzohairy, Y. (2016). Evaluation of the general deterrence capacity of recently implemented (2009–2010) low and zero BAC requirements for drivers in Ontario. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 88, 56-67.

Campos, V. R., de Souza e Silva, R., Duailibi, S., dos Santos, J. F., Laranjeira, R., & Pinsky, I. (2013). The effect of the new traffic law on drinking and driving in São Paulo, Brazil. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 50, 622-627.

Casanova-Powell, T., Hedlund, J., Leaf, W. & Tison, J. (2015). Evaluation of State ignition interlock programs: Interlock use analyses from 28 States, 2006-2011 (Report No. DOT HS 812 145). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Casanova, T., Hedlund, J., & Tison, J. (2012). State blood alcohol concentration (BAC) testing and reporting for drivers involved in fatal crashes: Current practices, results, and strategies, 1997-2009 (Report No. DOT HS 811 661). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 

Casanova Powell Consulting & Smith, R. C. (2020, September 28). Rideshare volume and DUI incidents in target California communities. National District Attorneys Association.

Casanova Powell Consulting & Smith, R. C. (2021, March 26). Rideshare volume and DUI incidents in Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; and Fort Worth, Texas. National District Attorneys Association.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Summary health statistics: National Health Interview Survey, 2018.

CDC. (2021). The community guide: Motor vehicle injury. [Web page].

C’deBaca, J. C., Lapham, S. C., Liang, H. C., & Skipper, B. J. (2001). Victim impact panels: Do they impact drunk drivers? A follow-up of female and male first-time and repeat offenders. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62(5), 615-620.

Century Council & National Association of State Judicial Educators. (2008). Hardcore drunk driving: A sourcebook of promising strategies, laws & programs. The National Hardcore Drunk Driver Project. 

Chang, I., Gregory, C., & Lapham, S. C. (2002). Review of screening instruments and procedures for evaluating DWI (Driving while intoxicated/impaired) offenders (Report No. HS 043 515). AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.

Chapman, E. A., Daoud, S. O., & Masten, S. V. (2015). General deterrent evaluation of the ignition interlock pilot program in California (Report No. CAL-DMV-RSS-14-247). California Department of Motor Vehicles.

Cheesman, F., Kleiman, M., Lee, C. G., & Holt, K. (2014). Ignition interlock: An investigation into rural Arizona judges’ perceptions (Report No. DOT HS 812 025). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

City of Columbus. (2019). Claiming an impounded vehicle.

Cohen, D. A., Mason, K., & Scribner, R. (2001). The population consumption model, alcohol control practices, and alcohol-related traffic fatalities. Preventive Medicine, 34(2), 187-197.

Coleman, H., & Mizenko, K. (2018, October, revised). Impaired-driving leadership model–Findings based on three state case studies (Report No. DOT HS 812 516). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Conner, C. R., Ray, H. M., McCormack, R. M., Dickey, J. S., Parker, S. L., Zhang, X., Vera, R. M., Harvin, J. A. & Kitagawa, R. S. (2021). Association of rideshare use with alcohol-associated motor vehicle crash trauma. JAMA Surgery, 156(8), 731-738.

Crew, B. K., & Johnson, S. E. (2011). Do victim impact programs reduce recidivism for operating a motor vehicle while intoxicated? Findings from an outcomes evaluation. Criminal Justice Studies, 24(2), 153-163.

Curtis, S. C., & Ramirez, R. L. (2011). Source investigations: A tool to combat impaired driving (Report No. DOT HS 811 519). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Dang, J. N. (2008, May). Statistical analysis of alcohol-related driving trends, 1982-2005 (Report No. DOT HS 810 942). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Decina, L. E., Foss, R. D., Tucker, M. E., Goodwin, A., & Sohn, J. (2009). Alternative transportation programs: A countermeasure for reducing impaired driving (Report No. DOT HS 811 188). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

DeYoung, D. J. (1997). An evaluation of the specific deterrent effect of vehicle impoundment on suspended, revoked and unlicensed drivers in California (Report No. DOT HS 808 727). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

DeYoung, D. J. (2013a). Traffic safety impact of judicial and administrative driver license suspension. In Countermeasures to address impaired driving offenders: Toward an integrated model (Transportation Research Circular, Number E-C174, pp. 41-53). Transportation Research Board.

DeYoung, D. J. (2013b). Controlling the risk of impaired drivers through use of vehicle-based sanctions: Impoundment, forfeiture, and license plate sanctions. In Countermeasures to address impaired driving offenders: Toward an integrated model (Transportation Research Circular, Number E-C174, pp. 20-31). Transportation Research Board.

Dill, P. L., & Wells-Parker, E. (2006). Court-mandated treatment for convicted drinking drivers. Alcohol Research & Health, 29(1), 41-48.

Dill, P. L., Wells-Parker, E., & Soderstrom, C. A. (2004). The emergency care setting for screening and intervention for alcohol use problems among injured and high-risk drivers: A review. Traffic Injury Prevention, 5(3), 278-291.

Dills, A. K., & Mulholland, S. E. (2018). Ride‐sharing, fatal crashes, and crime. Southern Economic Journal, 84(4), 965-991.

Ditter, S. M., Elder, R. W., Shults, R. A., Sleet, D. A., Compton, R., & Nichols, J. L. (2005). Effectiveness of designated driver programs for reducing drinking and driving and alcohol- involved crashes: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5S), 280-287.

D'Onofrio, G., & Degutis, L. C. (2002). Preventive care in the emergency department: Screening and brief intervention for alcohol problems in the emergency department: A systematic review. Academic Emergency Medicine, 9(6), 627-638.

Downey, P.M. & Roman, J.K. (2014). Cost-benefit analysis: A guide for drug courts and other criminal justice programs. National Institute of Justice Research in Brief.

Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety. (2021). Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety.

Dunlap, K. L., Mullins, T. G., & Stein, M. (2008). Guidelines for community supervision of DWI offenders (Report No. DOT HS 810 940). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Eichelberger, A. H., & McCartt, A. T. (2016). Impaired driving enforcement practices among State and local law enforcement agencies in the United States. Journal of Safety Research, 58, 41–47.

Eichelberger, A. H., McCartt, A. T., & Cicchino, J. B. (2018). Fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists in the United States with high blood alcohol concentrations. Journal of Safety Research, 65, 1-9.

Elder, R. W., Lawrence, B., Janes, G., Brewer, R. D., Toomey, T. L., Hingson, R. W., Naimi, T. S., Wing, S. G., & Fielding, J. (2007). Enhanced enforcement of laws prohibiting sale of alcohol to minors: Systematic review of effectiveness for reducing sales and underage drinking (Transportation Research Circular: Traffic Safety and Alcohol Regulation. Number E-C123, 181-187). Transportation Research Board.

Elder, R. W., Nichols, J. L., Shults, R.A., Sleet, D. A., Barrios, L. C., Compton, R., & the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. (2005). Effectiveness of school-based programs for reducing drinking and driving and riding with drinking drivers. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5S), 288-297.

Elder, R. W., Shults, R. A., Sleet, D. A., Nichols, J. L., Thompson, R. S., Rajab, W., & the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. (2004). Effectiveness of mass media campaigns for reducing drinking and driving and alcohol-involved crashes.  American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(1), 57-65.

Elder, R. W., Voas, R., Beirness, D., Shults, R. A., Sleet, D. A., Nichols, J. L., & Compton, R. (2011). Effectiveness of ignition interlocks for preventing alcohol-impaired driving and alcohol-related crashes: A community guide systematic review. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 40(3), 362-376.  

Erickson, D. J., Farbakhsh, K., Toomey, T. L., Lenk, K. M., Jones-Webb, R., & Nelson, T. F. (2015). Enforcement of alcohol-impaired driving laws in the United States: A national survey of state and local agencies. Traffic Injury Prevention16(6), 533-539.

Erickson, D. J., Lenk, K. M., Sanem, J. R., Nelson, T. F., Jones-Webb, R., & Toomey, T. L. (2014). Current use of underage alcohol compliance checks by enforcement agencies in the United States. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research38(6), 1712-1719.

Erke, A., Goldenbeld, C., & Vaa, T. (2009). The effects of drink-driving checkpoints on crashes – A meta-analysis. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 41(5), 914-923.

Fagan, A. A., Hawkins, J. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2011). Engaging communities to prevent underage drinking. Alcohol Research & Health34(2), 167-174.

Fan, A. Z., Grant, B. F., Ruan, W. J., Huang, B., & Chou, S. P. (2019). Drinking and driving among adults in the United States: Results from the 2012–2013 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions-III. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 125, 49-55.

Farmer, C. M. (2021). Potential lives saved by in-vehicle alcohol detection systems. Traffic Injury Prevention, 22(1), 7-12.

Farmer, C. M., Wells, J. K., Ferguson, S. A., & Voas, R. B. (1999). Field evaluation of the PAS III Passive Alcohol Sensor. Journal of Crash Prevention and Injury Control, 1, 55-61.

Federal Highway Administration. (2022). Apportionment of federal-aid highway program funds for fiscal year (FY) 2023 – Table 2 (FHWA Notice N 4510.870).

Fehr & Peers (2019). Estimated TNC share of VMT in six US metropolitan regions (Revision 1).  

Fell, J. C. (2019a). Approaches for reducing alcohol-impaired driving: evidence-based legislation, law enforcement strategies, sanctions, and alcohol-control policies. Forensic Science Review, 31(2), 161-184.

Fell, J. (2019b). Underutilized strategies in traffic safety: Results of a nationally representative survey. Traffic Injury Prevention, 20(sup2), S57-S62.

Fell, J. C., Compton, C., & Voas, R. B. (2008). A note on the use of passive alcohol sensors during routine traffic stops. Traffic Injury Prevention, 9(6), 534-538.

Fell, J. C., Ferguson, S. A., Williams, A. F., & Fields, M. (2003). Why are sobriety checkpoints not widely adopted as an enforcement strategy in the United States? Accident Analysis & Prevention, 35(6), 897-902.

Fell, J. C., Fisher, D. A., & McKnight, A. S. (2011). A guide for local impaired-driving task forces - Volume I (Report No. DOT HS 811 460A) National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Fell, J. C., Fisher, D. A., Voas, R. B., Blackman, K., & Tippetts, A. S. (2009). The impact of underage drinking laws on alcohol-related fatal crashes of young drivers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(7), 1208-1219.

Fell, J. C., Lacey, J. H., & Voas, R. B. (2004). Sobriety checkpoints: Evidence of effectiveness is strong, but use is limited. Traffic Injury Prevention, 5(3), 220-227.

Fell, J. C., & Langston, E. A. (2009). A guide for statewide impaired-driving task forces (Report No. DOT HS 811 103). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Fell, J. C., Langston, E. A., Lacey, J. H., Tippetts, A. S., & Cotton, R. (2008). Evaluation of seven publicized enforcement demonstration programs to reduce impaired driving: Georgia, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Indiana, and Michigan (Report No. DOT HS 810 941). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Fell, J. C., & McKnight, A. S. (2013). Transdermal Alcohol Monitoring (TAM) in compliance with abstinence: Records from 250,000 offenders in the United States. Proceedings of the 2013 Australasian Road Safety Research, Policing & Education Conference. Brisbane, Queensland.

Fell, J. C., McKnight, A. S., & Auld-Owens, A. (2013). Increasing impaired-driving enforcement visibility: Six case studies (Report No. DOT HS 811 716). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Fell, J. C., & Scherer, M. (2017). Administrative license suspension: Does length of suspension matter? Traffic Injury Prevention, 18(6), 577-584.

Fell, J. C., Scherer, M., Thomas, S., & Voas, R. B. (2016). Assessing the impact of twenty underage drinking laws. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(2), 249-260.

Fell, J. C., Scherer, M., & Voas, R. (2015). The utility of including the strengths of underage drinking laws in determining their effect on outcomes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research39(8), 1528-1537.

Fell, J. C., Scolese, J., Achoki, T., Burks, C., Goldberg, A., & DeJong, W. (2020). The effectiveness of alternative transportation programs in reducing impaired driving: A literature review and synthesis. Journal of Safety Research, 75, 128-139.

Fell, J. C., Tippetts, A. S., & Langston, E. A. (2011). An evaluation of the three Georgia DUI courts (Report No. DOT HS 811 450). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Ferguson, S. A., Fields, M., & Voas, R. B. (2000). Enforcement of zero-tolerance laws in the United States. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety, Stockholm, Sweden.

Fieldler, K., Brittle, C., & Stafford, S. (2012). Case studies of ignition interlock programs (Report No. DOT HS 811 594). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Fisher, D. A., McKnight, A. S., & Fell, J. C. (2013, November). Intensive DWI supervision in urban areas—Feasibility study (Report No. DOT HS 811 861). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Flewelling, R. L., Grube, J. W., Paschall, M. J., Biglan, A., Kraft, A., Black, C., Hanley, S. M., Ringwalt, C., Wiesen, C., & Ruscoe, J. (2013). Reducing youth access to alcohol: Findings from a community-based randomized trial. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51, 264-277.

Forsman, Å., & Wallhagen, S. (2019). Drink drivers’ views of a voluntary alcohol interlock programme for drink driving offenders in Sweden. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 124, 210-218.

Foundation for Advancing Alcohol Responsibility. (2022). State law: Sobriety checkpoints.

FAAR. (n.d.). State law: Test refusal.

Government Accountability Office. (2014). Traffic safety: Alcohol ignition interlocks are effective while installed; Less is known about how to increase installation rates (Report No. GAO-14-559).

Gerstein, D. R., Johnson, R. A., Harwood, H. J., Fountain, D., Suiter, N., & Malloy, K. (1994). Evaluating recovery services: The California Drug and Alcohol Treatment Assessment (CALDATA). California Department of Alcohol and Drug Problems.

Governors Highway Safety Association. (2023). Alcohol-impaired driving laws by state.

Goodwin, A., Foss, R., Hedlund, J., Sohn, J., Pfefer, R., Neuman, T. R. Slack, K. L., & Hardy, K. K. (2005). A guide for reducing alcohol-related collisions. Transportation Research Board. 

Guard, A., & Rosenblum, L. (2008). Alcohol screening and brief intervention: A guide for public health practitioners. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 

Haghpanahan, H., Lewsey, J., Mackay, D. F., McIntosh, E., Pell, J., Jones, A., Fitzgerals, N. & Robinson, M. (2019). An evaluation of the effects of lowering blood alcohol concentration limits for drivers on the rates of road traffic accidents and alcohol consumption: A natural experiment. The Lancet, 393(10169), 321-329.

Haire, E. R., Leaf, W. A., Presser, D. F., & Solomon, M. G. (2011). Use of warrants to reduce breath test refusals: Experiences from North Carolina (Report No. DOT HS 811 461). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Harron, A., & Kavanaugh, J. M. (2015). Research update on DWI courts (The Bottom Line). National Center for DWI Courts.

Hedlund, J. H., & Beirness, D. J. (2007). Use of warrants for breath test refusals: Case studies (Report No. DOT HS 810 852). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Hedlund, J. H., & McCartt, A. T. (2002). Drunk driving: Seeking additional solutions. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.

Hedlund, J. H., Ulmer, R. G., & Preusser, D. F. (2001). Determine why there are fewer young alcohol-impaired drivers (Report No. DOT HS 809 348). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Hezaveh, A. M., & Cherry, C. R. (2018). Walking under the influence of the alcohol: A case study of pedestrian crashes in Tennessee. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 121, 64-70.

Higgins-Biddle, J., & Dilonardo, J. (2013). Alcohol and highway safety: Screening and brief intervention for alcohol problems as a community approach to improving traffic safety (Report No. DOT HS 811 836). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Hingson, R. W., Assailly, J., & Williams, A. F. (2004). Underage drinking: Frequency, consequences, and interventions. Traffic Injury Prevention, 5(3), 228-236.

Hingson, R., Heeren, T., & Winter, M. (1998). Effects of Maine’s 0.05% legal blood alcohol level for drivers with DWI convictions. Public Health Reports, 113(5), 440-446.

Hingson, R., McGovern, T., Howland, J., Heeren, T., Winter, M., & Zakocs, R. (1996). Reducing alcohol-impaired driving in Massachusetts: The Saving Lives Program. American Journal of Public Health, 86(6), 791-797.

Hover, A. R., Hover, B. A., & Young, J. C. (2000). Measuring the effectiveness of a community- sponsored DWI intervention for teens. American Journal of Health Studies, 16(4), 171-176.

Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. (2008). Campaign spurs big drop in night drinking, driving. Status Report, 43(6), 4-5.

Jewell, J., & Hupp, S. D. A. (2005). Examining the effects of fatal vision goggles on changing attitudes and behaviors related to drinking and driving. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(6), 553-565.

Jones, R. K., Joksch, H. C., Lacey, J. H., Wiliszowski, C., & Marchetti, L. (1995). Summary Report: Field test of combined speed, alcohol, and safety belt strategies (Report No. DOT HS 808 242). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Jones, R. K., & Lacey, J. H. (2001). Alcohol and highway safety 2001: A review of the state of knowledge (Report No. DOT HS 809 383). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Jones, R. K., & Nichols, J. L. (2012). Breath test refusals and their effect on DWI prosecution (Report No. DOT HS 811 551). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Jones, R. K., & Rodriguez-Iglesias, C. (2004). Evaluation of lower BAC limits for convicted OUI offenders in Maine (Report No. DOT HS 809 827). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Jones, R. K., Wiliszowski, C. H., & Lacey, J. H. (1996). Evaluation of alternative programs for repeat DWI offenders (Report No. DOT HS 808 493). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Kaufman, E. J., & Wiebe, D. J. (2016). Impact of state ignition interlock laws on alcohol-involved crash deaths in the United States. American Journal of Public Health106(5), 865-871.

Kelley-Baker, T., Brainard, K., Lacey, J., Vishnuvajjala, R., & Cobb, P. (2008). Implementing a citizen’s DWI reporting program using the Extra Eyes model (Report No. DOT HS 811 038). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.  

Kelley-Baker, T., Lacey, J., Brainard, K., Kirk, H., & Taylor, E. (2006). Citizen reporting of DUI Extra Eyes to identify impaired diving (Report No. DOT HS 810 647). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Kelley-Baker, T., & Romano, E. (2016). An examination of the effectiveness of child endangerment laws in preventing child fatalities in alcohol-involved motor vehicle crashes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(5), 828-833.

Kelly-Weeder, S., Phillips, K., & Rounseville, S. (2011). Effectiveness of public health programs for decreasing alcohol consumption. Patient Intelligence2011(3), 29-38.

Kilmer, B., Nicosia, N., Heaton, P., & Midgette, G. (2013). Efficacy of frequent monitoring with swift, certain and modest sanctions for violations: Insights from South Dakota’s 24/7 Sobriety Project. American Journal of Public Health, 103(1), e37-e43.

Kubas, A., Kayabas, P., & Vachal, K. (2016). The effects of legislatively mandated sobriety on first-time and repeat DUI offenders in North Dakota (DP-290). Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute, North Dakota State University.

Kubas, A., Kayabas, P., & Vachal, K. (2017). Does the 24/7 sobriety program positively influence driver behaviors in North Dakota? (DP-296). Upper Greater Plains Transportation Institute, North Dakota State University.

Lacey, J. H., Ferguson, S. A., Kelley-Baker, T., & Rider, R. P. (2006). Low-manpower checkpoints: Can they provide effective DUI enforcement for small communities? Traffic Injury Prevention, 7(3), 213-218.

Lacey, J. H., Jones, R. K., & Wiliszowski, C. H. (2000). Zero-tolerance laws for youth: Four states’ experience (Report No. DOT HS 809 803). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lacey, J. H., Kelley-Baker, T., Brainard, K., Tippetts, S., & Lyakhovich, M. (2008). Evaluation of the Checkpoint Strikeforce program (Report No. DOT HS 811 056). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lacey, J. H., Kelley-Baker, T., Furr-Holden, D., Voas, R.B., Romano, E., Torres, P., Tippetts, A. S., Ramirez, A., Brainard, K., & Berning, A. (2009). 2007 national roadside survey of alcohol and drug use by drivers: Alcohol results (Report No. DOT HS 811 248). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lacey, J. H., Wiliszowski, C. H., & Jones, R. K. (2004). An impact evaluation of underage drinking prevention projects (Report No. DOT HS 809 670). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lacey, J. H., Wiliszowski, C. H., Tippetts, A. S., & Blackman, K. (2017). Determining the effectiveness of flexible checkpoints (Report No. DOT HS 812 420). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lapham, S. C., Kapitula, L. R., C’de Baca, J., & McMillan, G. P. (2006). Impaired-driving recidivism among repeat offenders following an intensive court-based intervention. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 38(1), 162-169.

Le, T. Q., Powell, T. C., Lucas, J. M., & Scopatz, R. (2019). Evaluation of Minnesota’s ignition interlock program (Paper No. 19-02894). 98th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 

Leaf, W. A., & Preusser, D. F. (2011). Evaluation of Minnesota’s vehicle plate impoundment law for impaired drivers (Report No. DOT HS 811 351). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lee, J. D., Fiorentino, D., Reyes, M. L., Brown, T. L., Ahmad, O., Fell, J., Ward, N., & Dufour, R. (2010). Assessing the feasibility of vehicle-based sensors to detect alcohol impairment (Report No. DOT HS 811 358). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lemons, B., & Birst, A. (2016). U.S. Supreme Court approves criminalizing breath refusals. Between the Lines, 24(2).

Lenk, K. M., Nelson, T. F., Toomey, T. L., Jones-Webb, R., & Erickson, D. J. (2016). Sobriety checkpoint and open container laws in the United States: Associations with reported drinking-driving. Traffic Injury Prevention, 17(8), 782-787.

Lenton, S., Fetherston, J., & Cercarelli, R. (2010). Recidivist drink drivers’ self-reported reasons for driving whilst unlicensed – A qualitative study. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42(2), 637-644.

Levy, M., Compton, R., & Dienstfrey, S. (2004). Public perceptions of the July 2003 You Drink & Drive. You Lose crackdown: Telephone surveys show the media campaign reaches target audience (Traffic Safety Facts Research Note. Report No. DOT HS 809 708). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Linkenbach, J., & Perkins, H. W. (2005). Montana’s MOST of Us Don’t Drink and Drive campaign: A social norms strategy to reduce impaired driving among 21-34-year-olds (Report No. DOT HS 809 869). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Lowe, N. (2014). Screening for risk and needs using the impaired driving assessment (Report No. DOT HS 812 022). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.  

Ma, T., Byrne, P. A., Bhatti, J. A., & Elzohairy, Y. (2016). Program design for incentivizing ignition interlock installation for alcohol-impaired drivers: The Ontario approach. Accident Analysis & Prevention95(Pt. A), 27-32.

Macdonald, S., Zhao, J., Martin, G., Brubacher, J., Stockwell, T., Arason, N., Steinmetz, S., & Chan, H. (2013). The impact on alcohol-related collisions of the partial decriminalization of impaired driving in British Columbia, Canada. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 59, 200-205.

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